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Mangement-(Recruitment, selection, training, performance )
Posted Date: 31 Jan 2008 Resource Type: Articles/Knowledge Sharing Category: AdSense Revenue Sharing
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Posted By: prakash Member Level: Silver
Rating:  Points: 5
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Fundamental of Staffing:
Staffing basically involves matching jobs and individuals. This may require a number or functions like manpower planning, recruitment, selection, training and development, performance appraisal, promotion, transfer etc. Staffing also involves making people suitable to jobs…
The responsibility for staffing rests on all managers at all levels of the organization.
It increases as one goes up in the organizational hierarchy.
Chief executive ? Selection of Personnel at higher levels.
In order to facilitate the effective performance of staffing function, Personnel department is created in large organization. Its primary responsibility to take those aspects of staffing which cannot be performed well by line managers either because discharge of such function requires the use of specific skills not adequately possessed by line managers or because line managers may not get enough time to go through these aspects.
For example, designing of performance appraisal form requires the use of skills not necessarily possessed by a functional manager but the administration of performance appraisal form has to be carried on by him. Many aspects of staffing may be given to the personnel department to co-ordinates such efforts at various points in the organization.
For example – finding the sources of manpower supply – Giving advertising for various positions. Personnel management and industrial relations.
Systems Approach to Staffing:
Staffing requires an open – system approach. Staffing function is affected by various elements of management processes but, it affects other elements also. For example planning and organizing together determine the number and type of personnel to be required in the organization. This requirement is compared with the personnel available in the organization. The gap between the personnel required and available can be filled through recruitment, selection, promotion etc. These are followed b training, development, and performance appraisal.
Staffing function also affects directing and controlling aspects of management process. For example, Staffing will affect the type of personnel made available in the organization which will determine the type of direction given and control exercised. It is to be noted that direction depends on the quality of personnel. For example if people are well qualified, they will need lesser degree of direction as they can initiate many functions on their own. Similarly, they need less control as they will exercise self control in the light of the objectives of the positions occupied by them.
The inter relationship between staffing and other elements of management process works in reverse direction too. It is true that staffing is affected by planning and organizing but at the same time, it may affect these elements too. For example, planning and organizing take into account the type of personnel presently available or may be made available in future.
Similarly staffing may be affected by directing and controlling also. For example, availability of personnel to organization is affected by the incentives and motivational plans, quality of leadership and working life, type of control systems used etc.
Staffing is affected
by various elements
of management
Process.
Staffing also affects other
elements of Management
Process.
Besides, the internal factors, staffing is affected by several factors outside the organization. Such factors like level of education, attitudes to work, rules and regulations framed by the government affect staffing function in different ways and put limitations on the organization.
- “Reservation for socially and economically backward communities”.
- Organizations are forced to select personnel belonging to these communities
- Whether they meet the organizational requirements or not:
Man power planning:
Manpower planning is a major managerial responsibility. Manpower planning essentially draws its concept from general planning process. Planning denotes future course of action. In the context of manpower, it denotes what kind of people will be needed in future, what kind of people will be made available from internal sources, what will be additional requirement, and what steps should be taken to bring additional people required in the organization.
- Man power planning and manpower supplies
- Man power planning also deals with
Effective utilization of manpower:
Factors to be considered in this respect are working environment, suitable performance appraisal promotion etc.
To control cost it is necessary to calculate the cost of manpower in terms of salary and perquisites, cost of training and development.
Man Power Planning helps the organization to match its manpower with skills necessary for achieving its objectives. In the short term, organization may not have sufficient time for selecting or training personnel. In the long run it gets enough time to match jobs and skills.
By keeping an inventory of existing personal according to skill, qualification, training, work experience etc., it will be possible to utilize the existing manpower more productively in relation to job requirements.
Thus chances of over manning or misutilization of manpower are considerable reduced in the organization.
Man Power Planning is not an easy task because of limitations imposed various factors.
a) Man Power planning is a different task because of changes in economic conditions, technologies market condition etc. Vacancies caused by retirements can be predicted more accurately, other factors like resignations, deaths are difficult to forecast. This problem becomes more acute in the context of key personnel because their replacements cannot be arranged in short period of time.
b) At times, lack of top management support also frustrates those in charge of man power planning.
Manpower Planning Process:
The various steps of manpower planning can be identified as follows: Projecting man power requirements, job analysis manpower inventory and analysis and identifying gap between existing and needed manpower – All these steps are interrelated in the sense that they contribute to each other.
a) Projecting Man Power Requirements:
If the organization is stable, there is no expansion or contraction in business activities, man power requirement will be same as in the past. Therefore, the organization has to arrange replacement only.
Business plan of the organization can be used as the blueprint for manpower planning. This plan clearly shows the future course of action – expansion – diversification, market opportunities. Manpower requirements can be tied with the overall plan. However there cannot be the overall plan. However there cannot be perfect tie between the two because manpower of all types may not vary indirect proportion of business activities. It is better to use indicators . For example, requirements of workers can be tied with the volume of operation requirement of managers can be tied with the administrative problems of volume of operations.
- U.S. Govt publishes “Monthly labor review” – Annual man power report” of the President which makes long term projections.
- Trade unions – also project the demand for labor.
b) Job analysis
Job analysis gives clue about the type of personnel required. It provides information about the nature of the job and the characteristics or qualifications that are desirable to the job holder.
- (i) What is the basic objective or the job?
- (ii) What types of decisions are to be made by the incumbent on the job?
- (iii) What types of authority of the job? Can this job alter the present organization structure?
- (iv) What are the requirements of personal attributes of incumbent in terms of education, training, experience, physical strength, mental capabilities, social skills etc.
Job description:
Information provided by the job analysis is written into records in the form of job descriptions. This can be done for various position. It provides details about the nature of the job, relationship with other jobs, purpose of the job – This can be used not only for selection of personnel, but also for their training. Performance appraisal, job evaluation etc.,
Job Specification:
Job specification, also called as man specification refers to the summary of the Personal characteristics required for the job.
Job description Vs Job Specification:
Job description describes the details of the job while job specification describes the requirements of the person performing the job.
c) Manpower Inventory:
Manpower inventory is related to the identification of key personnel in the organization and cataloguing their characteristics without reference to the present Positions held by them.
Step 1:
1. Determination of personal whose inventory is to be prepared. Only those people who will have potential for development for future positions should be included here.
2. Collect the detailed information about the personal included in the manpower inventory. --- Details about age, education, experience, results of psychological and other tests etc.
3. Appraisal of personnel included in inventory. All persons may be rated in some way. Remarks about each individual should be written like, listing of commendable work. Position for which they are qualified additional training required etc.
d) Identification of gap between available and required manpower.
Step 1:
Compare manpower required and manpower available without considering loss of Personnel.
Loss of personnel depends on degree of quits, discharges, death, retirement and transfer.
? Past rate of employee turnover can be taken base. When the rate of loss of personnel is incorporated, the organization can really find the gap between personnel needed and available. This can be filled by requirement and selection.
? “Training and development programme is necessary for those people available in the organization”.
Manpower Planning in Hindustan Lever Limited
Step 1:
Manpower planning basically depends on the business objectives. ? Detailed org. chart is drawn and the mgt tries to determine how many people, at what level, at what positions, and with what kind of experience and training would be required to meet the business objectives during the planning period.
? The company undertakes its planning activities for a period of 5 years.
The forecast is made for various categories of people.
The company prepares manuals of job description with specific reference to individual jobs to be performed.
Step 2:
At the next step, the company undertakes inventorying and auditing of manpower resources presently available with it. Carrer planning is prepared for key personnel. Manpower inventory indicates the positions that can be filled up by internal promotion, the losses that may be caused through anticipated and unexpected separations.
Step 3:
At this stage, the company formulates its requirement plan to fill up the vacancies in the organization.
Requirement plan, includes the sources of recruitment, both internal and external and the period in which man power resources would be made available after all the procedures would be completed.
Responsibility for manpower planning- must lie on the Board of Directors – Besides, senior managers of various functions and divisions are also involved in the process. The role of personnel dept. in this context is to co-ordinate.
REQUIREMENT AND SELECTION
Sources of Man Power Supply:
“Recruitment is the process of searching for prospective employees”
? Normally, an organization can fill up its vacancies either through promotion of people available in the organization or through the selection of people from outside.
? Internal Promotion has a favorable reaction among employees.
? The level of socialization required and time taken for that determines the inside or outside sources of requirement. People selected from outside take time to socialize them within an organization. For certain Jobs, this process may take considerable longer time.
For example, marketing executive of a consumer product company will take less time in socializing in another product company but more time in capital goods industry.
Same is the case with production people but finance people may take same time in spite of differences and similarities of organizations.
The need for originality and new ideas also affects recruitment policy. – organization which grow through diversification give more importance to outside sources as existing people may not be fully equipped to handle new business.
? Normally the following sources are utilized for different positions.
1) Advertising in Journals, news papers, bulletins
2) Employment Agencies:
a) Public Employment Agencies:
b) Private Employment Agencies:
ABC Consultants – A F Ferguson and company, Personnel and productivity services, S. B Billmoria and company etc.
3) On Campus recruitment:
Interview at
- campuses of various institutes, Universities.
- Suitable for selecting management trainees, technical supervisors, technicians.
4) Deputation:
Many Organization take people on deputation from other organizations. Such people are given choice either to return to their original organization after a certain time or to opt for the present organization.
Organizations promoted by various industrial groups also use this sources to fill up higher managerial Positions.
People working in one organization are deputed in another belonging to the same industrial house.
5. Employee Recommendations:
? May be considered to employ personnel at the lower level.
6. Labors Union: Suggestions
? May be considered as a matter of goodwill and co-operation.
7. Gate Hiring
The concept of gate hiring is to select people who approach on their own for employment in the organization.
“SELECTION”
A selection process involves a number of steps:- Below is a discussion of the various steps:
1. Screening of Applications:
Prospective employees have to fill up some sort of application forms ? Bio-data- achievements, experience etc.
? Call letter to suitable candidates.
2. Selection tests:
? Give information regarding candidates aptitude, interest, personality etc.
3. Interview:
? Selection tests are normally followed by personal interview of the candidates. In many cases, interview of preliminary nature can be conducted before the selection tests.
? e.g. Campus selection – Preliminary interviews held for short listing the candidates.
4. Checking references:
? Names of references ? should be mentioned in the application. Previous employees. Persons associated with the educational institutions - ie. Principal, HOD.
? References are not given adequate importance – because of their biasness.
5. Physical Examination:
? Purpose – To check the physical standards and fitness of prospective employees.
? Some organizations locates the physical examination near the end of the selection process, others place it relatively early in the process.
6. Approval by Appropriate Authority:
? Suitable candidates are recommended for selection by the selection committee or personnel department.
Organization may designate the various authorities for approval of final selection of candidates for different categories of candidates.
? For top level managers - board of directors may be approving authority.
? For lower level managers – Functional heads may be approving authority.
In university, it may be syndicate \ executive committee.
7. Placement:
After all the formalities are completed, the candidates are placed on their jobs initially on probation basis.
? The probation period may range from 3 months to two years.
Selection Tests:
The use of tests in selection is so wide spread that these may be classified in various ways. Most of the tests fall in one of the following categories, achievement, intelligence, personality, aptitude and interest.
1. Achievement Test:
It is also called performance test or trade test. Achievement is concerned with what one has accomplished .When candidates claim that they have done certain things and know these,. the achievement test may be conducted to measure how well the candidates know these.
2. Intelligence Test:
? To measure the level of intelligence - eg. Verbal comprehension – inductive reasoning – speed of perception etc.
The scores on the test are usually expressed numerically as “ Intelligent Quotient” which can be calculated as follows:
MENTAL AGE
I Q = ACTUAL AGE * 100
Higher is the figure, higher is the level of Intelligence. Intelligence test is designed on the basis of age groups.
? Why it is conducted ?
Intelligent people learn faster than dull employees.
3. Personality Test:
? Personality test is essentially a projective test. Dimensions of Personality such as inter – personal competence, dominance submission, and extroversion - introversion. Self confidence – leadership ability – patience – ambition can be measured through personality tests.
Among the most widely used personality test is “Thematic Apperception Test” (TAT) and its more improved version Thematic Evaluation of Management Potential (TEMP)
4. Aptitude Test:
Aptitude test is used for measuring human performance characteristics related to the Possible development of Proficiency on Specific jobs.
This test is more valid when the applications have no experience or very little experiences along the lines of the jobs.
? eg. Specific tests have been developed for jobs that require clerical, mechanical, spatial relationships and manual dexterity abilities and skills.
Dexterity – “ readiness and skill” cleverness.
5. Interest Test:
Interest test is designed to discover a Person’s area of interest and to identify the kind of jobs that will satisfy him.
Conclusion:
Different tests are used for different purposes. Each of them has the usefulness and limitations in specified areas. Therefore, a combination of tests should be used for selection purpose.
Advantages of Selection tests:
1. Selection tests are standardized and unbiased methods of soliciting information about the prospective employees.
2. Selection tests can be used to weed out the large number of candidates who may not be considered for employment in the organization.
All may meet the basic requirements of the jobs, but all cannot be called for interview because it is very-time consuming process.
3. Selection tests may help to unearth the qualities and potentials of prospective employees which cannot be known by other methods including personal interview.
Limitation of Selection tests:
1. Selection tests cannot make a hundred percent prediction of an individual’s on the – Job – Success. Therefore, it is desirable to use tests only as supplementary methods of selection.
2. If the number of candidates is small, the use of tests is not economical – In such a case, it is desirable to select persons on the basis of interview only
Precautions in using Selection tests:
1. A test can be effective only when it has validity. The validity of a test is the degree to which it measures what it intends to measure. Thus a valid test is one which accurately predicts the criteria of job success.
Moreover, it is important to test the reliability of the test. If a test has a high reliability, a person who is tested a second or third time with the same test and under the same conditions will obtain the same results.
Further, norms should be developed as a source of reference on all tests used in selection. Norms can be fixed on the basis of success or failure of employees in the organization selected on the basis of Similar tests.
1. In order to make maximum advantages of tests proper weight age can be given to scores in the tests. This may help in avoiding Personal biases in the selection considerably.
2. Tests should be handled by properly trained and competent people.
3. Test should not be treated as the sole basis for selecting or rejecting a candidate. Other factors like references, performance at the time of interview should be used along with test for taking decision regarding selection of the candidate.
Interview
Interview is the mostly used selection technique because of its easiness.
There can be several types of interviews: Preliminary interview, stress interview, Patterned interview and depth interview.
Preliminary interview is held to find out whether the candidate is required to be interviewed in more detail.
Stress interview is directed to create situations of stress to find out whether the applicant can perform well in a conditions of stress.
Patterned interview is structured and questions asked are decided in advance.
Depth interview also known as non-directive interview, covers the complete life history of the applicant and includes areas as the candidate’s work experience, qualifications, health, interests, hobbies etc.
Principles of Interviewing:
1. Proper planning:
Who will conduct interview, on what basis the candidate is evaluated, and how much weight age will be given to interview in the total selection process.
2. Proper Setting:
The physical setting for the interview should be comfortable and free from any physical disturbance.
The mental setting i.e. establishing rapport between the interviewer and the candidate.
3. When the candidates feels at ease, the interview may be started.
4. The interviewer should listen to the candidate carefully.
5. The interview should be closed with pleasant marks. Saying “thanks” “good wishes” or similar things carries much better impression about the interviewer.
6. Immediately after the interview is over, the interviewer should make an evaluation of the candidate. At this stage, the things are quite fresh in his mind.
Hindustan Level Ltd., Selection Process
Step 1:
? Application are screened keeping in mind the min qualification required……
The selected candidates – are required to fill in a detailed app. Form
? Company tries to conduct a preliminary interview to as many candidates as is administrately possible.
? Preliminary interview is conducted for about 10 to 20 minutes usually by one manager.
? Some details given – nature of the job, career possibility for the company policy in this regard.
? Often a second interview is conducted before the application rejected or selected .
Group discussion and
Final Selection
Final Interview
Group discussion is conducted at two stages.
In the first group discussion, the chairman of the panel of selectors requests the group to select a subject which can be economic, political……
When the topic is finalized, the members of the group discuss it.
In the second group discussion, a case is given. The case is distributed in advance so that the candidate can compose their thoughts in advance.
The board evaluates the candidate along the following factors. Style of self introduction, general knowledge and knowledge of his subject, clarity of thought and logic, tolerance of other’s views, persuasiveness and leadership qualities.
Each Selector is given a blank sheet to evaluate the candidates.
He evaluates the candidates individually – After the group discussion, Personal interview is conducted by the board.
On completion of the individual interviews the board members discuss about the candidates among themselves and arrive at a consensus.
Normally, the result of selection is communicated on the same evening to the candidates. On the next day, the selected candidates undergo medical examinations. Those who pass medical examinations successfully, are given information about their selection.
TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT
The term training is concerned with imparting specific skills for particular purposes.
Supervisors need training so that they can perform their job better: Managers need training to change their approach and attitudes – to make them to face challenges.
Managerial Personnel need training to improve their conceptual and human relations skills.
Benefits of training:
1. Training imparts knowledge and skills to employees and it makes them to cope up with the pressures of changing environment. For example, working on automatic machine requires skills different than that required to handle manually – operated machines. Raw employees cannot handle such machine.
2. Increase in Morale
Training increases employee morale by relating their skills with their job requirements. High morale is evidenced by employee enthusiasm, voluntary confirmation with regulations and willingness to co-operate with others to achieve organizational objectives.
Moreover, by providing suitable human relations training inter-personal and inter groups conflicts can be solved.
3. Further, trained employees require less supervision. With reduced supervision, a manager can increase his span of management. This may result into lesser number of inter mediate levels in the organization which can save much cost to the organization.
Trained people are necessary to maintain organizational viability and flexibility. Viability relates to survival of the organization during bad days and flexibility relates to sustain its effectiveness despite the loss of its key personnel and making short – term adjustment with the existing personnel. Such adjustment is possible if the organization has trained people who can occupy the positions vacated by key personnel.
Identifying Training Needs:
The basic aim of training is to induce a suitable change in the individuals concerned. Training needs have to be related both in terms of organization’s demands and that of individual’s. For example, diversification of product line in the organization may require new technology or Create jobs with different characteristics. If the organization wants that the new jobs are to be handled by the existing employees, it requires to train its personnel suitable.
Mr. Sinha has found the following methods for the purpose of identifying training needs.
1. Views of the line manager
2. Performance appraisal
3. Company and departmental plans
4. Views of training manager and
5. Analysis of Job difficulties
As against these practices, ghee and thoyer have given a model for identifying training needs. This model includes organization analysis, task analysis and man analysis.
1. Organization Analysis:
Organization analysis involves detailed analysis of the organization structure, objectives, human resources and future plans. An in depth analysis of these factors would facilitate an understanding of deficiencies that need to be rectified.
Organization structure has to be realigned keeping in view the organizational objectives, growth and diversification. All these have implication on each individual job-role.
2. Task Analysis:
Task analysis entails a detailed examination of a job, its various operations and the conditions under which it has to be performed.
3. Man Analysis:
The focus of man analysis is on the individual employee, his abilities, his skills or individual growth and development in terms of career planning.
Planning:
Man analysis helps to identify whether the individual employee requires training and if so, what kind of training -clues to training needs can come from an analysis of individual’s or group’s typical behavior.
Major sources of information for man analysis may be:
Observation at the work place, interviews with his superiors and peers, personal records, production records etc.
These sources will provide clue about the difference between the existing skills and attitudes of employees and that he should posses.
A survey conducted by Sinha indicates that managers need training in the following areas:
1. Analysis of business environment
2. General management training
3. Functional areas such as marketing finance, personnel etc.,
4. Specified techniques oriented Programme such as production planning, maintenance management, value analysis, interview techniques etc.
5. Problem solving and decision making.
On the Job Training Method:
1. On Specific job:
A person can learn when he is put on a specific job. However, he can learn the job better if he is given some guidance either in the form of coaching or working as understudy.
Under the understudy method, the trainee works under the direction and
supervision of a person, normally as assistant.
2. Position Rotation:
In position rotation, a person is given jobs in various departments of the organization. The major objective of job rotation training is to broaden the background of the trainee. More ever, he can develop an integrated view of the organizational functioning.
3. Special Projects, Task forces etc.
Assignment of people on special projects, task forces, committees etc works like a position rotation. Besides learning the jobs performed in these assignment, he also learns how to work with different type of persons.
4. Apprenticeship:
Under Apprenticeship training, trainee is put under the supervision of a person who may be quite experienced in his field. In today’s context, many organizations have to take trainees under Apprenticeship Act.
5. Vestible School
The concept of vestibule school is that people will learn and develop skills while working in situations similar to what they will face after they are put on actual jobs. Many organization establish training center to train people.
Off-the Job training:
1. Special course and lectures
- are knowledge based training methods. The focus is essentially on transmission of knowledge.
2. Conference:
- In this method, the participants pool their ideas and experience in attempting to arrive at improved methods of dealing with problems which are faced by them at their work place.
3. Cases:
- Developed by Harvard Business school of U.S.A.
- A case is a written description of an organization containing information about its numerous aspects, its history, external environment, financial structure, internal operation etc. However, a case may not give as complete information about the organization or its parts as a reader wishes.
- “Managers, must make decision on the basis of information at hand and after making reasonable assumptions about the unknown. This is applied in the case analysis also”.
- Normally, cases are discussed in groups. Each member of the group is asked by the instructor to present his analysis and to comment on the analysis of others”.
- At times, members are required to respond the queries of other members and instructors. This process helps to develop analytical skills among participants.
4. Role Playing
The concept of role playing has been drawn from drama and play in which actors play the various roles. While playing roles, the actors assume themselves as the person whose roles they are playing. Similar is the case in role play training method.
Role playing technique is used in group where various individuals are given roles of different managers who may be required to solve a problem or arrive at a decision. Dialogue grows spontaneously as the role playing proceeds. At the end of the role playing session, usually there is a Critique session in which the trainees are given feed back about their role playing. This helps trainee to develop better perspective in performing jobs because he may see his jobs from different angles.
5. Management Games:
Management games are used to stimulate the thinking of people to run an organization or its department.
A game involves the participation of two or more teams depending on the situation. We know very well, one team will win unless there is a draw. In the same way management game is played by two or more teams which are given a company or department to operate over the periods.
Various situations of the game are specified by the trainer. All the teams have to make decisions regarding the operations of their companies in the given situation. Such decisions may be in the areas of level of production,. level of inventory, price, expenditure on advertisement. This process is repeated over a number of times. Since each team is competing with others, each team’s decisions will affect the results of others.
The trainer gives the feedback to every team after every period.. In the light of this feed back, each team can evaluate its decisions and may modify them to arrive at better results.
6. Brain Storming:
Brain storming is a technique to stimulate for idea generation. Originally applied by Osborn in 1938 in an American company. He defines brain storming simply as “using the brain to storm the problem”.
- “A conference technique by which a group attempts to find a solution for a specific problem by amassing all the ideas spontaneously contributed by its members”.
- For conducting brainstorming, a group 10 to 15 persons is constituted.
Since the objective is idea generation, usually the group consists of people of the same level. The process in brain storming session goes in the following ways.
(i) A problem is given to a group engaged in brain storming session. Each member is given the problem.
(ii) Each member is asked to give ideas through which the problem can be solved. Here the emphasis is on quality of ideas and quality may follow later. Factors inhibiting the ideas generation are pushed back.
(iii) The members are expected to put their ideas for problem solution without taking into consideration any limitation – financial, procedural, legal, organizational otherwise. Such limitations only act as deterrent to free flow of ideas.
(iv) Idea evaluation is deferred to a later stage. Hence, any criticism, judgment or comment is strictly prohibited and the participants are told to abstain from it.
7. In basket exercise:
In basket exercise is a simulation technique designed around the “incoming mail” of a manager. A variety of situations is presented in this exercise which would usually be dealt by a manager in his typical working day.
One method of this exercise is to present mail of various types to a trainee whose reactions on these are noted. A slight variation in this method may be in the form of incident method. In this method, the trainee is given certain incidents and his reactions are noted.
The trainee is given deed back about his behavioral pattern. He tries to overcome the one which is not productive or functional.
8. Sensitivity Training / Human relations training:
Sensitivity training was first used by National Training laboratories at Bethel USA. “Sensitivity training is a small group interaction under somewhat strained conditions”. The training group has the following characteristics.
a. The group is small one – The group begins its activity without any formal agenda.
b. The role of trainer is primarily to call attention from time to the on-going process within the group.
c. The procedure tends to develop introspection and self examination…. And the possibility of severe criticisms of colleagues and emotional breakdown.
d. The trainer provides feedback about the behavior of each individual pointing out where the trainee have gone wrong particularly in situations which have been stressing.
This way trainees can develop tolerance for others views, becomes less prejudiced develop understanding for group process and listening skills.
Sensitivity training offers several advantages in the field of human relations.
The major problems which are noticeable in sensitivity training are as follows.
(i) The first few sessions of the training prove to be quite frustrating to the participants Reasons a) Lack of formal agenda b) Criticisms of ideas by strangers.
(ii) It creates emotional problems to the individuals because it attacks on their emotions directly. It may damage future capabilities, the repair of which may take months together. Some times, damages may be beyond repair.
(iii) Sometimes, T-group exercise is unjustified, invasion of privacy or individuals because it tries to bring the hidden and private feelings of an individual.
Transaction Analysis: (TA)
TA refers to a method of analyzing and understanding interpersonal behavior. TA was originally developed by Erc Berne, a psychotherapist in 1950. (Multiple Personality).
To understand TA, Structural analysis (ego states), life position and analysis of transactions should be understood.
A)
EGO States:
(People interact with each other in terms of three psychological positions or behavioral patterns known as ego states. These ego states are : Parent, adult and child. These have nothing to do with the chronological age of the person rather they are related with the behavioral aspects of the age.
Thus, person of any age may have these ego states in varying degrees. A healthy person is able to move from one ego to another.
Parent Ego:
The parent ego incorporates the attitudes and behavior of all emotionally significant people who serve as parent figure when an individual was a child.
Characteristics of a person acting with parent ego are “waging finger to show displeasure” references to laws and rules.
Adult Ego:
Adult ego state is based upon reasoning, seeking and providing information. Person interacting with adult ego views people as equal, worthy and reasonable human beings. It is based on rationality. The adult is characterized by logical thinking and reasoning.
Child Ego:
Characteristics of child ego include creativity, conformity, depression, anxiety, dependence, fear and hate.
Physical and verbal clues that person is acting in the child ego are silent compliance, attention seeking and shyness.
The child has no self- direction, no ability to move out to face life. He takes what comes in his way.
Life Position:
Very early in the childhood, a person develops from experience a dominant philosophy. Such philosophy is tied into their identity, sense of worth, and perception of other people.
This tends to remain with the person for lifetime unless major experiences occur to change it. Such positions are called life – positions or Psychological positions and fall into four categories.
I am OK, You are OK:
1) This is a rationally chosen, life position; people with this position accept the significance of other people and feel that life is worth living. This is based on adult ego. When managers work from this position, they are likely to express a more consistent pattern of confidence and faith to their subordinates.
I am OK, You are not OK:
2) This position is taken by people who feel victimized or persecuted.
They blame others for their miseries; this is a distrustful life position. It usually results when a person was too much ignored when he was a child. These are the people with rebellion child ego. “Managers operating with this position are likely to give critical and oppressive remarks. Oppressive Means ? Unfair, severe unjust
I am not OK, You are OK:
It is based on one’s feelings about oneself. Persons with this life position always grumble for one thing or the other. Managers operating from this position tend to give and receive bad feelings. They often use their bad feelings as an excuse to act out against others.
“When the whole things comes in full circle they feel guilty for their acts and turn their bad feelings against themselves” – They tend to vacillate in their behavior and are often unpredictable and erratic.
I am not OK, you are not OK:
This is a disparate life position. This position is taken by those people who lose interest in living. They feel that life is not worth living at all. In extreme cases, they commit suitable or homicide.
Homicide ? Man – Slaughter
This is the case of individuals who are neglected seriously by their parents and are brought up servants. Managers operating from this position are likely to put down strokes from others.
Stroke ? a dash
Stroke ? one down
They donot make decisions in time. Make stupid mistakes or otherwise provoke others to give them negative reactions.
C) Transactions analysis:
When people interact, they involve in a transaction with others. The transaction is routed from ego states. Depending on the ego – states of the persons involved in the transactions, there may be three types of transactions – Complementary, Crossed and ulterior.
Complementary Transactions:
A transaction is complementary when the stimulus and response patterns from one ego state to another are parallel.
? Both are acting in the perceived and expected ego states.
Perceive – see, understand
In all, there can be nine complementary transactions – these are adult – adult, parent – child, adult – parent – adult – child, parent – parent, parent – adult, child – parent, child – adult and child transactions. However, out of these adult – adult and parent – child transactions are most desirable.
Non-Complementary Transactions:
Non complementary or crossed transactions may occur when stimulus – response lines are not parallel. This happens when the person who initiates transaction expecting a certain response does not get it.
P P
S
A A
C R C
Non Complementary transaction:
In this case, the manager tries to deal with the employee on adult – to adult basis but the employees responds on child to parent basis and the communication is blocked. Crossed transaction is not satisfactory one because the line of communication is blocked and further transaction does not take place.
Ulterior Transaction:
Ulterior transaction is the most complex because the communication has double meaning – when an ulterior message is sent, it is often disguised in a socially acceptable way. On the surface level, the communication has a clear adult message. Where as it carries a hidden message on the psychological level. Ulterior transaction like blocked transaction is undesirable.
Benefits and uses of TA:
1. Developing positive thinking:
TA brings positive approach towards life and hence positive actions. Positive attitude makes people stronger and negative attitude makes them exhausting. The whole objective of TA training programme is directed towards positive thinking. Its application can enhance the trust and credibility felt towards the organization which are essential for good employee relations.
2. Interpersonal Effectiveness:
TA improves interpersonal relationship by providing understanding of ego states of persons involved in interaction. TA provides them with a theoretical framework within which to examine the interactions with the employees. “The managers may be able to identify the ego states from which both parties are interacting. A better understanding of themselves and of other persons will make them more comfortable, confident and effective”.
3. Motivation:
Managers can engage people in those tasks which gives them more positive strokes. “It emphasizes strokes from the intrinsic value of the work, rather than depending entirely on strokes from outside (extrinsic) – The job enrichment in this case means increasing the number of intrinsic strokes gained from the work activity.
TA helps in changing the managerial style more suitable to the emergent situation. In this context, TA may be compared with MC Gregor’s theory X and Y. The theory X manager emphasis parent – child relationships and uses terms like “Should be” “Have to” “Must” and so on. He adopts a life position of “I am OK, You are not OK, which is not a healthy position for motivating employees or for the organization as a whole . On the other hand, theory Y manager emphasizes adult – adult interaction with life position “I am OK, your are OK.
4. Organization Development:
Organization development applies a humanistic value system to work behavior and a reorientation of man’s thinking and behavior towards his work organization. “ The major goal of organization development is to fight the past in the present in order to choose freely the future”.
Jonge ward has identified the role of TA in six areas of organization development.
1. To maintain adult – adult transaction.
2. To give an OK to the natural child
3. To identify and untangle quickly crossed transactions
4. To minimize destructive game playing
5. To maximize encounters (intimacy)
6. To develop supportive systems, policies and work environment.
Conclusion :
TA helps to increase a person’s on the job effectiveness because of better self understanding and greater insight in to personalities and transactions. It may help to solve personal and family problems.
Evaluation of Training Effectiveness:
There cannot be any concrete quantitative proof of training effectiveness at best, there can be some qualitative measurements – However, training evaluation can be more meaningful if the following process is adopted.
? Determination of training objectives
? Fixation of evaluation criteria
? Collection of information relevant to training evaluation and analysis.
Training Objectives:
Training plays role in several areas – However, to measure its contribution training objectives should be fixed in clear terms.
Hamblin has classified training objectives into four categories:
a) Reaction Objectives ? Intended to stimulate a high level of involvement and interest
b) Learning Objectives ? Concerned with acquiring knowledge, skills and attitudes.
c) Job – behavior Objectives ? Learning to bring about desired changes in Job behavior.
d) Organizational Objectives ? intended to promote over all results.
3. Evaluation Criteria:
Based on the objectives of training, Criteria for training evaluation can be fixed. Ideally speaking, training should meet its objectives.
Since training objectives can be defined either in terms of its immediate objectives like learning, behavior change etc and in terms of its ultimate objectives like achieving organizational objectives through learning, evaluation criteria can also be fixed in these two terms.
Example for Ultimate Criteria:
• Increase productivity
• Reduced employee turnover
• Reduced labor and human relations problems etc.
Example for setting standards:
Difference in Pre training and post training behavior of the same employee or difference between trained employee and untrained employee of the same level.
3. Collection of information:
Information can be collected on the basis of facts like production records, cost controls etc. This may be used for measuring the achievement of ultimate objectives of training. For measuring immediate objectives, information may be collected on various aspects through observation of employees behavior on job, conducting interview, and administering psychological tests to unearth behavioral change which cannot be observed or which cannot be measured by interview.
4. Analysis :
Collected information can be analyzed to interpret the impact of training on various aspects, and consequently its effectiveness.
PERFORMANCE APPRAISAL OR MERIT RATING
Performance appraisal (also called merit rating, or efficiency or service rating) is the process of reviewing an individual’s performance and progress in a job and assessing his potential.
Performance appraisal may be classified under three distinct categories namely,
(a) Performance review: It is related to the need to improve the performance of individuals and thereby improve the effectiveness of the organization as a whole.
(b) Potential review: It attempts to deal with the problem of predicting the level and type of work that the individual will be capable of doing in future.
(c) Reward review. It relates to the distribution of rewards such as salary, power, status, etc.
The assessment takes into account a number of factors relating to appearance, manner, degree of co-operation with other staff and superiors, initiatives, quality of work, aptitude, skill achievement of time schedules, time-keeping, ability to accept responsibility etc.
Benefits of Performance Appraisal:
The benefits of performance appraisal may be listed as follows:
1. It provides a sound basis for granting increments in salary within the pre-determined wage or salary scale.
2. It provides a basis for promotion, o for higher training, transfer and removal of employees.
3. It checks the effectiveness, of recruitment, training and placement of employees.
4. It promotes the desire for improvement on the part of employees as a whole.
5. It boosts the morale of employees in the sense that they know that individual performance and growth will be suitably rewarded on objective criteria.
Methods of Performance Appraisal:
1. Straight ranking, or order-of-merit method:
It is by far the simplest method. Under it persons in a work group are ranked one against the other. Names of employees are written on cards and on the basis of individual work performance, attitudes, behavior, sincerity honesty and such other positive factors, the cards are arranged in order from low to high.
6 5 4 3 2 1
Sohan Mirza Anthony Radhey Shyam Roberts
However, this method suffers from several shortcomings. It cannot be effectively applied in large undertakings. It is inadequate also where the number of qualities to be judged is large. It does not accurately determine the degree of difference between any two employees. It only says that one employee is better than the other, but it does not say how much better he is.
2. Graphic scale method:
It attempts to quantify each trait or factor in an employee. The scale used for this purpose may be descriptive, e.g. A +, A, B +, B, C +, or Excellent, Good, Average, Poor Very Poor, etc. Sometimes, these scales may also be quantitative as, for example, when they are expressed in terms of numericals, percentages, etc.
This method too is very simple to apply. However, its major limitations that the rater may be swayed by “halo” effect and give an employee the same rating in respect of all the traits. For example, if an employee is excellent in behavior, he may also be termed excellent as regards his performance at work. Its other weakness is that the rater, for fear of being accused of extravagance or indulgence, may rate all or most employees as just average. On the other hand, if he is very liberal or lenient, he may rate all his subordinates as good, if not excellent.
3. Fixed distribution method:
It seeks to minimize the rater’s bias. Accordingly, he is required to follow a pre-determined distribution in rating. Thus, if workers are to be graded as A, B, C, D and E, it may be laid down that 5 to 10 percent of them are to be given A’s 20 to 30 percent B’s and so on.
Though it reduces the rater’s bias, it may lead to low morale of workers, and therefore low productivity.
4. Paired Comparison scales :
Under this method, each employee is rated in comparison with each of the others in the rating list. But whereas one employee is compared with all the others, only two of them are compared at one time. For example, X may be compared with Y; then X may be compared with Z; then Y may be compared with Z, then with P, and so on.
On the face of it, this method seems to be quite objective. But its weak point is that it may become too lengthy and also complicated.
5. Forced choice method:
Under this method, the rater himself does not know whether the rating assigned by him to an employee is favorable or unfavorable.
Thus, the rater is asked to tick one of the statements that most or least describes the traits of the person being rated by him. For example, the supervisor may be asked to select any one of the following statements that best describes the characteristics of the employee whom he is to rate:
(a) Meticulous in planning, (b) painstaking in execution, (c) positive interaction with subordinates, (d) extra careful, and so on.
Or, he may be asked to select the statements that least describe the characteristics of the person concerned. Like:(a) thinks too much of himself (b) undependable (c) does not take his work seriously.’
Forced choice method is easily the most objective of all. But even so, it is the least used. First, their choice in describing the traits of the employees is considerably restricted, in the sense that they have to choose any one from among a small number of statements placed before them. Secondly, the results obtained through such rating cannot be used to improve the performance of the workers concerned. Lastly, it is quite expensive and time consuming.
6. Critical incident method:
Raters are asked to identify the incidents that are extremely good or bad, and to communicate with the worker at a time that is the most appropriate to dealing with the observed incident.
7. Field review method:
Under this method, a trained employee from the personnel department goes out to interview line supervisors as regards the performance of their respective subordinates. Supervisors are asked questions about the progress and performance of each of their subordinates. They are also asked to suggest suitable plans of action for improvement in the employee’s performance.
8. Performance Evaluation:
Under this method of merit rating, the emphasis is on actual performance, and not on the personality of the employee to be rated. For this purpose, written descriptions of employees’ performance have to be prepared.
But this method necessitates a lot of paper work which makes it quite complicated and time-consuming,
Demerits of Employee Appraisal:
There is every likelihood of the assessment of an employee being subjectively based on individual preferences and prejudices of the supervisor.
Merit rating can be subject to many errors. When a rater is positively lenient, an individual’s performance is rated higher than actual. A negativist rater, on his part may rate an individual lower than actual. Besides such leniency error, there may be what is called “halo effect” or “halo error”, according to which assessment of an individual in respect of one trait may influence the assessment of his traits. If an individual is highly conscientious and dependable, the rater may become biased towards him and rate him very high on several other non-existent attributes, too. There may also be similarity error in merit rating. This is when the rater applies the same standards to employees as he applies to himself.
It needs to be remembered that the employee’s merit rating shows his past performance, and while considering him for a raise in status or salary, it would be wrong to judge him on the basis of his past performance. Particularly in the case of promotions, it should be seen how well the employee concerned would fit into his new job, rather than how well he discharged his duties and responsibilities on his previous job.
PROMOTIONS
In the words of Pigors and Myers, promotion means “the advancement of an employee to a better job”. Better job entails increased responsibilities, more prestige or status, requires greater skills, provides increased scales of pay and has favorable working hours, improved working conditions etc.
Basis of Promotion – Seniority Vs. Merit
Promotion is made either on the basis of seniority or on the basis of merit or both. Normally, management of any organization prefers merit. But the trade unions and workers favor seniority. Seniority means the length of service put in by an employee in the working organization. Merit on the other hand, means the qualification which an employee possesses.
Advantages of Promotion based on Seniority:
1. It develops a sense of loyalty among the employees and the morale of the employees will be higher.
2. It avoids disputes among employees regarding promotion.
3. It encourages the employees to work hard and efficiently.
Disadvantages of Seniority:
1. Since the employees are sure of getting promotion, it makes them lethargic in performing their duties.
2. New brilliant employees will be left with no motivating factor for improving their performance, if eligibility for better jobs depends just upon their length of service. This leads to greater labor turnover. As a result, overall production of the concern will be very much affected.
Advantages of Promotion based on Merit:
1. Since efficiency and talents are rewarded, it encourages the employees to increase their knowledge in maintaining a high level of productivity.
2. New employees are also encouraged to improve their performance as promotion is made on the basis of competence, capability and efficiency.
Disadvantages of Merit:
1. Senior employees in the organization may become unsatisfied and they may indulge in certain activities that may lead to industrial unrest, strikes, lock outs, etc.
2. Promotion of employees on the basis of merit requires proper method of performance appraisal or merit rating. But, normally formulation of correct method of performance appraisal may not be done.
Sound Promotion Policy:
Following are the essentials of a sound promotion policy.
1. Proper Merit Rating methods should be followed to evaluate the performance of workers which will help the management to decide on promotion.
2. Various jobs within the organization should be well defined and rated. There should be an orderly arrangement of various jobs according to its ratings so that the order of promotion can be made well known to all.
3. Promotion should be made on the combined basis or merit and seniority. Hence, promotion policy to be sound should give due weight age to merit as well as seniority as the basis for promotion.
TRANSFERS
The term transfer means the shifting of an employee from one job to another without special reference to change in responsibilities or remuneration.
It may involve promotion, demotion or no change in status and responsibility.
It may also be used to correct wrong selection and placement.
Types of Transfer :
1. Productive Transfer :
If workers are transferred from a department in which requirements for labor are declining to a department where more workers are required, such transfers are called productive transfers.
2. Replacement Transfer:
This type of transfer is made with an intention of retaining the senior employees in various departments when operations in all the departments are declining.
3. Versatility Transfer:
In this type of transfer, employees are shifted from job to job to keep them busy for the whole day. So, it gives them varied experience in all departments.
4. Transfer:
The intention behind remedial transfer is rectifying the wrong placement of an employee. Wrong placement may be due to
1. Faulty initial placement
2. advancement in age to continue in the existing job
3. present health conditions or accident records of any worker, etc.
Sound Transfer policy:
1. In case of certain transfers like Productive transfers, Replacement transfers, activities in various sections should be adequately similar in nature.
2. Sometimes, workers may be transferred to the new job, If such work should be sound enough to provide for such re-training.
3. Transfer should not affect the seniority of any employee. It should ensure that the seniority to the credit of the employee before his transfer will remain to his credit even after transfer.
4. Transfer policy should treat all the employees throughout the organization alike.
DEMOTIONS
Demotions means transfer to a post resulting in lower stats, reduced responsibilities and lower pay.
Demotion becomes a necessity when an employees is unable to perform his duties satisfactorily.
Causes of Demotion:
1. When an employee has lost his capacity to perform his existing work, he may be demoted to a lower job suited to him.
2. When an employee is unable to adjust to any change in technology methods and practices.
3. When some jobs are eliminated due to the merger of certain sections employees may be asked to accept lower posts.
Demotion Policy:
The circumstances under which an employee may be denoted should be clearly defined and should be made known to all the employees.
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